How does light become a chemical measurement?

How do telescopes split incoming light, recognize absorption patterns, and infer atmospheric or surface composition?

Follow photons from a distant world through calibration, wavelength separation, spectral lines, model comparison, and a bounded composition claim.

Astronomical spectrograph separating light from a distant world into a detailed rainbow spectrum. — Vastward artistic reconstruction of a measurement chain. Telescope layout, light rays, world positions, and spectrum are composed rather than one instrument photograph.

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